As nature dictates, variations or mutations regularly appear. Long before man captured wild Budgerigars, yellows would have occurred in the native indigenous flocks although in the wild state these yellows would quickly have been reabsorbed into the greens.
Records which are available, indicate there were mutations in Belgium in 1872 and in Germany in 1875 of which there were two kinds. The ordinary Light Yellow; the black-eyed which was suffused with Green, and the pure yellow with red-eyes which we call the Lutino. The name is derived from the words Ino indicating its genetic form and the Latin work Luteus meaning yellow. Subsequent appearances of the Lutino were in 1879 in Belgium and various writers indicate that "Abrahams", in England, had some in 1884. It is thought that because breeders were not aware of the sex-linked behaviour of the Lutino, they disappeared as quickly as they had arrived.
In the wild flocks, it may be assumed that the yellows were bred due to a genetic "fault". Perhaps caused by an environmental feeding or health instability, which resulted in the loss of one of the colour factors. It will be appreciated that a Green Budgerigar has two primary colours; yellow and blue. Accordingly therefore, the Yellow is a Green minus blue, whilst a Blue is a Green minus yellow. Much experimental breeding was carried out by enthusiasts, but the step which generated the interest and development of the species was the formation in 1925 of the Budgerigar Society.
There then followed the publication of the book "Budgerigar Matings and Colour Expectations". This was based on the research of the German geneticist, Dr. H. Duncker who was assisted by Consul-General Cremer. This publication enabled many enthusiastic breeders to understand the basic theory and principles of the Mendelian theory of Genetics. Until 30 years ago there were both sex-linked and non sex-linked Lutinos, but the latter variety appears to have ceased to exist for the time being.
The name Lutino is the breeders abbreviation for Pure Yellow Red-Eye; the visual description of the albinistic form of "yellow" series birds. It should be noted that they can mask any recessive factors that Normals may carry as it has the effect of eliminating the melanin in the feathers, eyes, beak, legs and feet. It is the absence of pigment which allows the blood vessels to show through. The visual appearance therefore is a bird which is pure yellow in colour with a light coloured beak, pink legs and feet, and red eyes.
This variety is controlled by the laws of sex-linked inheritance, with the following expectations.
Cock x Hen Cocks - Hens
Lutino Cock x Normal Hen + Split Lutino Cocks and Lutino Hens
Lutino x Lutino + All Lutinos
Split Lutino Cock x Lutino Hen + Lutino Hens, Lutino Cocks & Normals
Normal Cock x Lutino + Split Lutino Cocks and Normal Hens
Split Lutino Cock x Normal Hen + Split Lutino Cocks, Lutino Hens and Normal Hens
It should be noted that it is not possible for a hen to carry a sex-linked character in "split" form and when two different kinds of sex-linked birds are used, one of them acts as if it were non sex-linked. Lutino is dominant to Albino when paired together. Examination of this table shows the least wasteful pairing is Lutino x Lutino. However, when improvement in head quality or overall size is sought the following should be borne in mind.
The Budgerigar Society colour standards definition is:
Rich buttercup yellow throughout
Eyes: clear red with an iris ring
Cheek patches: silvery white.
Primary Wing and Tail feathers: yellowish white.
As far as body and wings are concerned the breeder must aim for a "clear, level and even shade" when viewed in natural light conditions. A primary aim must be to "breed for colour" without losing sight of the Ideal. The B.S. scale of points for the Lutino is:
Size, shape, balance and deportment: 35
Size and shape of head: 25
Colour: 40
(N.B. Condition is essential)
A Lutino is genetically an "Ino" form of one of the green series. Accordingly it is possible for this character to mask any green whether pure or split for other colours. The greenish suffusion on rumps and vents is affected by the "Dark" characteristics so the presence of a single or double quantity of "dark" character also affects the depth of yellow shown. Similarly, the addition of the Grey character to Lutinos causes a distinct lessening of colour depth and brightness. If there is Cinnamon in the background of the birds, while you may get finer feather, dilution of colour also occurs.
If an Olive outcross with a deep even body colour is used, the young, having a double dose of the dark factor, should display solid colour. Again if this is combined with a bird whose ground colour is extremely yellow, such as a Yellow-face Type 2, better colour should result.
Allowance must be made, when selecting your breeding pairs that adult plumage is invariably deeper in tone. This is particularly noticeable after the second moult in a bird. Feather pigmentation is an inherited factor, which because it is visual should be easy to improve. Purity of colour, avoidance of suffusion and any visible marks must be given high priority. Where the sexes look different in a given species, the female normally has dilute plumage. The cock, in turn, has bolder coloured feather. Attention should be given in particular to the strength of body colour of the hen.
You must know your own stock as far as type and configuration is concerned, and have the "Ideal" firmly in the mind's eye. By careful selection and by following these stages your eventual progress will be assured.
At a suitable time of the year - say summer and preferably at midday, take your breeding stock into the daylight in suitable cages. Beware of colour casts from non-white interiors of these cages.
Select the strongest body colours and place them in relative order. Down grade any which have pale caps, masks or very light flight feathers.
Be very strict in observing whether or not any green or grey suffusion exists above or below the rump area. Hold the birds at eye-level and change the angle of light if possible.
Pair together compatible birds in type and configuration, both excelling in bold colour. The stronger the colour of the hen, the better.
Since it is obviously difficult for the human eye to hold a colour image from one year to the next, why not give each bird a number of points in relation to depth of colour. Record its score on its own record card and see if its progeny show improvements in colour after the first moult by visual comparison. This will also enable you to establish whether the factor for bold colour is dominant or recessive for future reference and breeding.
Further progress is possible if the visual characteristics in feather formation are recognised and utilised. In some studs however it will be difficult to ascertain which is which, if no real logical plan has been followed previously. The normal theory which is held, is as follows:
Breeding "yellow" to "yellow" (i.e. fine feathered birds) continuously, eventually reduces apparent size, whilst initially improving the feather quality, particularly in reflective or sheen. Breeding "buff" to "buff" (i.e. coarse feathered bird to coarse feathered birds) will normally result in a high proportion of visually larger birds although not necessarily larger in skeletal structure. This often means loss of sheen in the plumage and therefore loss of solid colour due to the distribution of pigment.
Judicious pairing of "yellow" to "buff", given that they have compatible features in overall quality, should give better results. It will be appreciated however that the lipochrome pigment responsible for the yellow basic colour, stops just short of the extreme edge of the web of each feather with a "buff" bird. This "frosting" effect is combined with a reduction of colour intensity, so they will also appear slightly paler around the cap and mask.
With all birds, the depth of colouring is dependant on basically two things. Firstly it is dependant on the birds genetical make-up. A bird with a low lipochrome producing gene content, will not achieve the depth of colouration of a bird with a high lipochrome producing gene. Secondly, all species are naturally "colour" fed in the broadest sense. The colours are produced from the various foods they eat.
As an illustration of this, controlled experiments were carried out in Germany some 50 years ago. Effectively yellow canaries were fed on a completely lutein-free diet and the result was that when they moulted they became virtually white.
The feathers of a bird from a biological point of view, are modified "scales" stemming from its reptilian-type ancestors. They are constructed mainly of keratin, a protein derived from essential amino-acids, with the sulphur containing members being the most significant. Further, vitamin A, niacin, tryptophan, pantothenic and folic acid and iodine, are essential for feather health. Tyrosine and lysine are necessary for feather pigmentation.
In the normal series of birds, it is accepted that the melanin "flecking" is formed from protein produced in the bird. The production of melanin is the result of the action of certain enzymes upon colour bases, known as chromogenes, present in the tissues. It is when these agents do not function normally, that "albinism" occurs.
Carotenoids are fat soluble pigments of two major types: the hydrocarbon class, known as carotenes, and the oxygenated class known as scanthophyl. The latter substance, also known as lutein, is essential for the formation of yellow pigment. Xanthaophyll is a derivative of chlorophyll. Birds which are provided with dark green leaves such as kale or spinach, as a regular part of their diet, would have the opportunity to produce lutein.
In the final analysis it still depends on the birds genetic ability to absorb and form the required pigment. Various works of reference list different potential sources of yellow producing carotenoids. Among them are rape, hemp, thistle, green leaves, yellow seeds (e.g. corn or maize) and citrus fruits.
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